Biology

I. Introductory

105. a and b. Introduction to Biological Processes (1)

Development of critical thought, communication skills, and understanding of central concepts in biology, through exploration of a timely topic. The content of each section varies. The department.

See Freshman handbook for section descriptions.

106. a and b. Introduction to Biological Investigation (1)

Investigation of biological questions via extended laboratory or field projects. Emphasis is placed on observation skills, development and testing of hypotheses, experimental design, data collection, statistical analysis, and scientific writing and presentation. The department.

One 75-minute period; one four-hour laboratory.

Biology 105 and 106 may be taken in any order, but students who have not taken two years of high school biology are urged to start with Biology 105.

141a or b. Introduction to Statistics (1)

(Same as Mathematics 141) The purpose of this course is to develop an appreciation and understanding of the exploration and interpretation of data. Topics include display and summary of data, introductory probability, fundamental issues of study design, and inferential methods including confidence interval estimation and hypothesis testing. Applications and examples are drawn from a wide variety of disciplines. When cross-listed with biology, examples will be drawn primarily from biology. Not open to students with AP credit in statistics or students who have completed Economics 209 or Psychology 200. Prerequisite: three years of high school mathematics.

Not open to students with AP credit in statistics or students who have completed Economics 209 or Psychology 200.

Prerequisite: three years of high school mathematics.

172a. Microbial Wars (1)

(Same as Science,Technology, and Society 172) This course explores our relationship with microbes that cause disease. Topics including bioterrorism, vaccinology, smallpox eradication, influenza pandemics, antibiotic resistance, and emerging diseases are discussed to investigate how human populations are affected by disease, how and why we alter microorganisms intentionally or unintentionally, and how we study disease causing microbes of the past and present. The use of new technologies in microbiology that allow us to turn harmful pathogens into helpful medical or industrial tools are also discussed. Mr. Esteban.

Not offered in 2012/13.

175a. Plants and Plant Communities of the Hudson Valley (1/2)

Plants are the most conspicuous components of terrestrial ecosystems. In this course, you learn how to observe and describe variation in plant form so you can recognize locally common plant species and determine their scientific names. You also learn to recognize the characteristic plant communities of the Hudson Valley. This course is structured around weekly field trips to local natural areas. Locations are chosen to illustrate the typical plant species and communities of the region, the ecosystem services provided by plants, environmental concerns, and conservation efforts. This course is appropriate for students interested in biology, environmental science, and environmental studies, and anyone wishing to learn more about our natural environment. Mr. Schlessman.

First 6-week course.

Two 75-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

178a or b. Special Projects in Biology (1/2)

Execution and analysis of a laboratory or field study. Project to be arranged with individual instructor. The department.

Open to freshmen and sophomores only.

II. Intermediate

Prerequisites for 200-level courses are BIOL 106 and either BIOL 105, AP Biology with a 4 or 5 AP score, or IB higher level 5, 6 or 7 test score, unless otherwise noted.

202a. Plant Physiology and Development (1)

An examination of the cellular and physiological bases of plant maintenance, growth, development, and reproduction; with emphasis on the values of different plants as experimental systems. To get a complete introduction to the biology of plants, you should also take Biology 208, Plant Diversity and Evolution. Mr. Pregnall.

Three 50-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

205a. Introduction to Microbiology (1)

An introduction to the world of microbes, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses. The study of bacteria is stressed. Studies of the morphology, physiology, and genetics of bacteria are followed by their consideration in ecology, industry, and medicine. Mr. Esteban.

Two 75-minute periods; two 2-hour laboratories.

Not offered in 2012/13.

208b. Plant Diversity and Evolution (1)

Plants are critically important for our continued existence on Earth. We are totally dependent on plants for the oxygen we breathe and the food that we eat. We rely heavily on plants for clothing, shelter, and many other essentials. Plants provide us with medicines, poisons, and mind-altering drugs. Plants inspire art, and many plants have become powerful cultural symbols. Thus, biologists, ecologists, environmentalists, anthropologists, and many others want to understand plants. In this course we will examine major events in the evolution of plants and other photosynthetic organisms, including photosynthetic bacteria, and algae. We will focus on their distinctive biological features, their environmental significance, and their value as model organisms for research. Laboratories include observations, experiments, and field trips. This course is appropriate for students majoring in biological sciences or environmental studies, and for those interested in ethnobotany. To get a complete introduction to the biology of plants, you should also take Biology 202, Plant Physiology. Mr. Schlessman.

Prerequisites: Biology 106, or Environmental Studies 124, or permission of the instructor prior to registration.

Two 75-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

218a. Cellular Structure and Function (1)

An introduction to cell biology, with a focus on subcellular organization in eukaryotes. The regulation and coordination of cellular events, and the specializations associated with a variety of cell types are considered. Topics include organelle function, the cytoskeleton, and mechanisms of cell division. Laboratory work centers on investigations of cell function with an emphasis on biological imaging. Ms. Pokrywka.

Two 75-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

226b. Animal Structure and Diversity (1)

The members of the animal kingdom are compared and analyzed in a phylogenetic context. Emphasis is placed on the unique innovations and common solutions evolved by different taxonomic groups to solve problems related to feeding, mobility, respiration, and reproduction. Laboratory work centers on the comparative study of the anatomy of species representative of the major animal phyla. Mr. Davis.

Two 75-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

228a. Animal Physiology (1)

A comparative examination of the mechanisms that animals use to move, respire, eat, reproduce, sense, and regulate their internal environments. The physiological principles governing these processes, and their ecological and evolutionary consequences, are developed in lecture and applied in the laboratory. Mr. Long, Ms. Duncan.

Recommended: Psychology 200 or Mathematics 141; Chemistry 108, 109, and Physics 113.

Two 75-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

232a. Developmental Biology (1)

The study of embryonic development including gametogenesis, fertilization, growth, and differentiation. Molecular concepts of gene regulation and cell interactions are emphasized. The laboratory emphasizes classical embryology and modern experimental techniques. Mr. Straus.

Two 75-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

Not offered in 2012/13.

238a. Principles of Genetics (1)

Principles of genetics and methods of genetic analysis at the molecular, cellular, and organismal levels. Emphasis is placed on classical genetic experiments, as well as modern investigative techniques such as recombinant DNA technology, gene therapy, genetic testing, and the use of transgenic plants and animals. Ms. Pokrywka, Ms. Kennell.

Three 50-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

241a. Ecology (1)

Population growth, species interaction, and community patterns and processes of species or groups of species are discussed. The course emphasizes these interactions within the framework of evolutionary theory. Local habitats and organisms are used as examples of how organisms are distributed in space, how populations grow, why species are adapted to their habitats, how species interact, and how communities change. Field laboratories at Vassar Farm and other localities emphasize the formulation of answerable questions and methods to test hypotheses. Ms. Christenson, Ms. Ronsheim.

Three 50-minute periods; one 4-hour field laboratory.

244b. Genetics and Genomics (1)

From understanding the role of a single gene in a single organism to understanding how species evolve, the field of genomics provides a lens for studying biology at all scales. In this course we develop a foundational understanding of genetics concepts and processes, and then deploy this foundation to probe some of the hottest questions in genomics. How do genomes evolve? What makes us human? How can we combat emerging diseases? In the lab component, students learn molecular biology and bioinformatics techniques, design and engineer a synthetic bio-machine from standard genomic parts, and use genomic approaches to understand how organisms interact with the environment. Ms. Schwarz.

Two 75-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

254. Environmental Science in the Field (1)

(Same as Earth Science, Environmental Science, and Geography 254) The environment consists of complex and often elegant interactions between various constituents so that an interdisciplinary approach is required to understand how human interactions may affect it. In this course, we study a variety of aspects of a specific environment by considering how biological, chemical, geological, and human factors interact. We observe these interactions first hand during a weeklong field trip. Some of the questions we may consider are: How does a coral polyp create an environment that not only suits its particular species, but also helps regulate the global climate? How has human development and associated water demands in the desert Southwest changed the landscape, fire ecology, and even estuary and fisheries' health as far away as the Gulf of California? How have a variety of species (humans included) managed to survive on an island with the harsh environment of the exposed mid-ocean ridge of Iceland? The course is offered every other year, and topics vary with expertise of the faculty teaching the course.

Prerequisite: permission of the instructor.

Not offered in 2012/13.

255. The Science of Forensics (1)

(Same as Chemistry and Science, Technology, and Society 255) Science of forensics is the application of scientific principles and methodology in the study and evaluation of evidence associated with criminal and civil cases. In this course, several science disciplines are explored as applied to forensics science. Topics include crime scene investigation, introduction to law of evidence, finger-printing analysis, analytical methods to characterize organic and inorganic compounds, forensic toxicology, principles of serology and DNA profiling, and introduction to forensic pathology, entomology and anthropology. The format of the course includes lectures, laboratory exercises, case studies, guest speakers from the forensics field, and a visit to a forensics laboratory. Ms. Kaur and instructor to be announced.

Prerequisite: Chemistry 244 or permission of the instructor.

Two 50-minute periods; one 3.5-hour laboratory.

Not offered in 2012/13.

272b. Biochemistry (0 or 1)

(Same as Chemistry 272) Basic course covering protein structure and synthesis, enzyme action, bio-energetic principles, electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation, selected metabolic pathways in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Mr. Jemiolo, Mr. Straus, Mr. Eberhardt, Ms. Garrett.

Prerequisites: Biology 106 and Chemistry 244.

Three 50-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

280a. The Biology of Domestication and Food Production (Multidisciplinary Learning/Living Community) (1)

(Same as College Course 280) For at least nine tenths of their existence, humans fed themselves by hunting wild animals and gathering wild plants. Then, about eight to ten thousand years ago, our ancestors from at least seven different regions of the world independently transformed certain wild animals and plants into livestock and crops. These transitions from foraging to farming were the greatest events in our cultural history. From a biological perspective, domestication is an evolutionary process, a long-term selection experiment, that has affected both domesticates and ourselves. In this course, you learn the basic biology behind food production, starting with the original domestications of wild animals and plants and continuing through traditional breeding, hybrid crop production and mechanized agriculture to the transgenic crops and livestock of today. We also consider currently popular alternatives to agribusiness, such as organic farming, slow foods, seed saving, and heirloom breeds, from a biological perspective. Mr. Schlessman.

By special permission. Open only to students admitted to the Multidisciplinary Learning/Living Community for 2012/13.

Two 75-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

281b. Evolutionary Genetics (1)

What do wolves, bananas, and staph infections have in common? The link is genetics – conservation genetics, the genetics of domestication, and the genetic changes resulting in antibiotic resistant strains of bacteria. In this course we cover the foundations of evolutionary biology, starting with the genetic principles that underlie the process of evolutionary change and how populations and species respond to evolutionary pressures. Building on this understanding of the genetic mechanisms involved in both micro- and macroevolutionary processes, we can then address the potential for evolutionary responses to environmental change. Ms. Ronsheim.

Two 75-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

287a. Paleoecology and Global Change (1)

(Same as Earth Science 281) Paleoecology is an interdisciplinary approach to understanding ancient ecosystems and environments. It focuses not only on fossils, but also on the fact that fossils were once living organisms, part of a complex ecosystem. They influenced and were influenced by the organisms around them, the environment they lived in, and changes in climate and geography. This course focuses on fossil organisms in the context of global environmental change at a variety of timescales and investigates a few key time periods in earth history. The class includes a review of necessary geological concepts and an introduction to important paleontological and ecological principles, including fossilization, evolution, taphonomy, and taxonomy. Field trips and laboratories focus on the importance of using a variety of approaches to understand paleoecology.

Prerequisites: Earth Science 151 or 161, or a 100-level biology course.

Two 75-minute periods and one 4-hour laboratory.

290a or b. Field Work (1/2 or 1)

298a or b. Independent Work (1/2 or 1)

Execution and analysis of a field, laboratory, or library study. The project, arranged with an individual instructor, is expected to have a substantial paper as its final product.

Prerequisite: permission of the instructor.

III. Advanced

Two units of 200-level biology are prerequisites for entry into 300-level courses; see each course for specific courses required or exceptions.

303a or b. Senior Research (1)

Critical analysis, usually through observation or experimentation, of a specific research problem in biology. A student electing this course must first gain, by submission of a written research proposal, the support of a member of the biology faculty with whom to work out details of a research protocol. The formal research proposal, a final paper, and presentation of results are required parts of the course. A second faculty member participates both in the planning of the research and in final evaluation.

Prerequisite: permission of the instructor.

316. Advanced Topics in Neurobiology (1)

A multilevel examination of nervous systems, with particular emphasis on cellular and molecular mechanisms. The course is an advanced, integrative evaluation of current topics in neurobiology. Topics vary but may include ion channel structure/function, mechanisms of synaptic communication, glia, evolution of nervous systems and plasticity. Emphasis is placed on current thinking and research and course material is drawn from the recent primary literature. Ms. Susman.

Prerequisites: two units of 200-level biology or one unit of 200-level biology and Neuroscience and Behavior 201. Recommended: Biology 228.

Two 75-minute periods.

Not offered in 2012/13.

323b. Seminar in Cell and Molecular Biology (1)

An intensive study of selected topics at the cellular and subcellular level. Topics vary, but may include organelle structure and function, advanced genetics, and mechanisms of cellular organization. Emphasis is placed on current models, issues, and research areas, and course material is drawn largely from primary literature.

Topic for 2012/13. Epigenetics. Most cells in our bodies contain the same set of DNA, yet there are ~200 different cell types, each with unique patterns of gene expression. How do those cells establish and maintain their identities? Why do we inherit some traits from our father and some from our mother? How does the environment influence our phenotype and our children’s (and grandchildren’s)? The field of epigenetics is shedding new light on these and many other interesting questions in biology and psychology. Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression (and hence traits) that cannot be explained by alterations in the DNA sequence. These changes instead involve chemical modifications to DNA and its associated histones. Some of these changes can be passed down from mother cell to daughter cell (through mitosis) and some even from parent to child (through meiosis). In this course we explore this exciting field of study through the careful reading and discussion of primary research articles in the field. Ms. Kennell.

Prerequisite: two 200-level courses including one of the following: Biology 218, 238, 244, 272, or 281.

Two 75-minute periods.

324a. Molecular Biology (1)

(Same as Chemistry 324) An examination of the macromolecular processes underlying storage, transfer, and expression of genetic information. Topics include the structure, function, and synthesis of DNA; mutation and repair; the chemistry of RNA and protein synthesis; the regulation of gene expression; cancer and oncogenes; the molecular basis of cell differentiation; and genetic engineering. Mr. Jemiolo.

Prerequisites: two 200-level courses including one of the following: Biology 205, 218, 238, 244, 272, or 281.

Two 75-minute periods.

340a. Experimental Animal Behavior (1)

Examination of the relationship between behavior and the individual animal's survival and reproductive success in its natural environment. Evolutionary, physiological, and developmental aspects of orientation, communication, foraging, reproductive tactics, and social behavior are considered. Methodology and experimental design are given particular emphasis, and students will complete an independent research project by the end of the semester. Mr. Davis.

Prerequisites: two units of 200-level biology or one unit each of 200-level biology and psychology.

Recommended: Biology 226, 228, 238, 244, 281, NSB 201, or Psychology 200.

Two 2-hour periods.

352. Conservation Biology (1)

(Same as Environmental Studies 352) Conservation Biology uses a multidisciplinary approach to study how to best maintain the earth's biodiversity and functioning ecosystems. We examine human impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem function and discuss how to develop practical approaches for mitigating those impacts. We start the semester by assessing the current human footprint on global resources, asking questions about what we are trying to preserve, why we are trying to preserve it, and how we can accomplish our goals. We critically examine the assumptions made by conservation biologists throughout, using case studies from around the world to explore a range of perspectives. Discussion topics include conservation in an agricultural context, the efficacy of marine protected areas, the impact of climate change on individual species and preserve design, restoration ecology, the consequences of small population sizes, conservation genetics, the impacts of habitat fragmentation and invasive species, and urbanecology. Ms. Ronsheim.

Recommended courses: Biology 241, 208, or 226, ESCI 161, Geography 260, 224, or 356; or permission of the instructor.

Not offered in 2012/13.

353a. Bioinformatics (1)

(Same as Computer Science 353) DNA is the blueprint of life. Although it's composed of only four nucleotide "letters" (A, C. T, G), the order and arrangement of these letters in a genome gives rise to the diversity of life on earth. Thousands of genomes have been partially sequenced, representing billions of nucleotides. How can we reach this vast expanse of sequence data to find patterns that provide answers to ecological, evolutionary, agricultural, and biomedical questions? Bioinformatics applies high-performance computing to discover patterns in large sequence datasets. In this class students from biology and computer science work together to formulate interesting biological questions and to design algorithms and computational experiments to answer them. Ms. Schwarz and Mr. Smith.

To register for this course students must satisfy either the biology or computer science prerequisites, but not both.

Prerequisites: Biology 238, 244, 281; Computer Science 203; or permission of the instructor.

Two 2-hour periods.

Not offered in 2012/13.

355. Ecology and Evolution of Sexual Reproduction (1)

Sex: "nothing in life is more important, more interesting - or troublesome." This quotation from Olivia Judson, Ph.D., (a.k.a. Dr. Tatiana) is just one recent example of the long-standing fascination that ecologists and evolutionary biologists have had with sexual reproduction. This course begins with the question: What is sex? We then examine the current status of competing hypotheses for the evolution of sex, and then turn our attention to the myriad ecological and evolutionary consequences of sexual reproduction. We consider such questions as: Why are there only two sexes? Why do males and females look and behave differently? When is it advantageous to produce more sons than daughters (or vice versa)? When is it advantageous to be a hermaphrodite or to change sex? To address such questions in a biologically rigorous way, we need to draw on a wide range of theoretical work and empirical evidence from cellular and molecular biology, genetics, developmental biology, ecology, and evolutionary biology. Mr. Schlessman.

Prerequisites: at least two 200-level biology courses, at least one of which is either 208, or 226, or 238, or 241, or 244, or 281; or permission of the instructor.

Two 2-hour periods.

Not offered in 2012/13.

356a. Aquatic Ecology (1)

A consideration of freshwater, estuarine, and marine habitats that examines material and energy fluxes through aquatic systems; physiological aspects of primary production; the biogeochemical cycling of nutrients; adaptations of organisms to physical and chemical aspects of aquatic environments; biological processes that structure selected communities; and the role of aquatic habitat in global change phenomena. Mr. Pregnall.

Three 50-minute periods; one 4-hour laboratory.

370. Immunology (1)

An examination of the immune response at the cellular and molecular levels. Topics include innate immunity, the structure, function, and synthesis of antibodies; transplantation and tumor immunology; immune tolerance; allergic responses; and immune deficiency diseases. Mechanisms for recognition; communication; and cooperation between different classes of lymphocytes in producing these various responses are stressed, as are the genetic basis of immunity and the cellular definition of "self'' which makes each individual unique. Mr. Esteban, Ms. Collins.

Prerequisite: Chemistry 244 or permission of the instructor; Biology 218, 238, 244, 272, or 281 recommended.

Two 75-minute periods.

Not offered in 2012/13.

380a. Engaging Biologists and Their Research (1)

A close examination of the active research programs of several biologists who will visit Vassar to present their research to the Biology Department. By reading and discussing the primary literature and interacting with biologists at different stages of their careers, students will develop a deep understanding of several current areas of biological research, and gain a better understanding of the scientific process. Students write a substantial paper focusing on one or more of the research areas discussed in class. Ms. Schwarz.

Enrollment limited to seniors majoring in Biology.

Two 75-minute periods.

381. Topics in Ecosystem Ecology - Ecosystem Structure and Function (1)

(Same as Environmental Studies 381) Ecosystems are complex systems, where biotic and abiotic factors interact to create the world we see around us. Understanding the nature of ecosystems is fundamental to understanding how disturbance and change in a dynamic world will influence ecosystem stability. This is especially critical as we enter the Anthropocene; a time in our planets history where one species, modern humans, dominate. Major changes brought about by increased human activity include changing climate regimes, invasive species spread and biodiversity loss. This course explores how ecosystems, both aquatic and terrestrial, are assembled (structured) and how different ecosystems process energy and matter (function). We use our understanding of structure and function to explore how different ecosystems respond to changes in the environment (including climate change, invasive species introductions, loss of biodiversity and pollution). A class project will explore an ecosystem scale problem, and students will develop a plan for effectively communicating the scientific understanding of the problem to multiple stakeholders. Ms. Christenson.

Prerequisite: Biology 241.

Not offered in 2012/13.

382a. Advanced Research Methods (1)

Design and conduct an original research project in a small collaborative group. Develop experience with experimental techniques in biology, develop a working knowledge of relevant research literature, practice scientific writing and participate in the peer review process.Research time: 6-10 hours a week. Ms. Duncan.

One 2-hour period.

Prerequisites: two units of 200-level biology and permission of the instructor.

Students enrolled in Biology 382, Advanced Research Methods, may not also register for Biology 303 to fulfill biology graduation requirements.

383b. Hormones and Behavior (1)

This course is a comparative examination of hormones and behavior in animals. We take an evolutionary approach to this topic by emphasizing (1) the common selective pressures that act on all animals and the common hormonal and behavioral responses to these pressures, and (2) how extreme selective pressures drive the evolution of unique mechanisms in the field of behavioral endocrinology. Half lecture, half student led discussions from the primary literature. Ms. Duncan.

Prerequisite: two units of 200-level biology.

Two 75-minute periods.

384a. The Ecology of Adaptive Radiations (1)

This course explores the causes of adaptive radiation, possibly the most common syndrome of proliferation of taxa, through evidence that has accumulated since the formulation of the theory. The course will review the ecological theory of adaptive radiation, the progress of adaptive radiation and phenotypic evolution, the origins of ecological diversity, divergent natural selection between environments, the ecological basis of speciation, and ecological opportunity. Primary literature will be used to develop a richer understanding of the theory of adaptive radiation, whose origins trace back to Darwin (1859). Mr. Proudfoot.

Prerequisite: permission of the instructor.

Two 75-minute periods.

385a. Mad Dogs, Vampires and Zombie Ants: Behavior Mediating Infections (1)

(Same as Psychology 385) Viruses, bacteria and parasites use host organisms to complete their lifecycle. These infectious agents are masters of host manipulation, able to hijack host processes to replicate and transmit to the next host. While we tend to think of infections as just making us sick, they are also capable of changing our behavior. In fact, many infectious agents are able to mediate host behavior in ways that can enhance transmission of the disease. In this inquiry driven course we explore the process of host behavior mediation by infectious agents, combining aspects of multiple fields including infectious disease microbiology, neurobiology, epidemiology and animal behavior. Mathematical models and computer simulations are used to address questions that arise from class discussion. Mr. Esteban and Mr. Holloway.

Prerequisites: two 200-level biology courses, or Psychology Research Methods Course and either Psychology 241 or 243, or one 200-level biology course and either Neuroscience 201 or Psychology 241, or Computer Science 250 and one of the previously listed courses.

One 3-hour period.

386b. Advanced Topics in Developmental Biology (1)

An intensive study of the mechanisms and strategies used by developing organisms. Topics vary, but may include gradients and tissue patterning, advanced developmental genetics, and evolution of the multicellular body plan. Emphasis is placed on current models, issues, and research areas, and course material is drawn largely from primary literature. Ms. Pokrywka.

Prerequisite: Biology 238, 232, or 218.

Two 75-minute periods.

387b. Symbiotic Interactions (1)

From the evolution of eukaryotic cells to the creation of entire ecosystems, endosymbiosis is a driving force in biology. This course provides an integrative perspective on host-symbiont interactions in diverse endosymbioses. We spend the first half of the semester examining the critical roles of symbiosis in ecology, evolution, and human systems. Then, we examine the underlying cellular and molecular processes that lead to an integrated host-symbiont partnership, for example mechanisms of host-symbiont recognition, regulation of nutrient exchange, and genomic interactions. Ms. Schwarz.

Prerequisites: Biology 205 Microbiology, 218, 238 Genetics, or Biology 244 Genomics.

Two 2-hour periods.

388b. Virology (1)

Viruses cause significant diseases in humans, such as AIDS, influenza, and ebola. On the edge between living and non-living things, viruses invade, take over and alter cells in order to reproduce and transmit. Virus structure, replication and pathogenesis, major viral diseases, the immune response to viruses, and vaccination are major topics of discussion. Mr. Esteban.

Prerequisites: two units of 200-level biology, including one of Biology 205, 218, 238, 244, 272, 281; or permission of the instructor.

Two 2-hour periods.

Not offered in 2012/13.

399a or b. Senior Independent Work (1/2 or 1)

Execution and analysis of a field, laboratory, or library study. The project, to be arranged with an individual instructor, is expected to have a substantial paper as its final product.

Prerequisite: permission of the instructor.